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Ali Karimi



Ali Karimi
Ali Karimi (born November 8, 1978) as Mohammad Ali Karimi Pashaki (علی کریمی in Persian) is an Iranian football player, and is current Asian Player of the Year 2004. He is currently playing for German Giants Bayern Munich for the 2005-2006 season. He was playing for Al-Ahli of the UAE before joining Bayern Munich.

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Profile
· Date of Birth: November 8th, 1978
· Place of Birth: Karaj, Tehran Province, Iran
· Nicknames: Persian Maradona, Iranian Maradona, The Wizard Of Tehran
· Height: 5'10 1/2" (178cm)
· Weight: 165 lbs (73 kg)
· Marital Status: Married, 2 sons
· Profession: Professional Football Player
· Hobbies: Beach Volleyball
[edit]
Career


Ali Karimi awarded as the Asian Player of the Year of 2004.
Ali Karimi started his career in Fath Football Club and experienced significant improvement during the time he was playing Persepolis football club and got offers from Atletico Madrid, among other European clubs. However, Karimi did not accept them and chose to play in the U.A.E. because he wanted to stay close to Iran. He is arguably the best dribbler in Iran and his ball skills are amongst the best in Asia. His skills are often compared to those of Maradona and therefore received the title of Persian Maradona from world newspapers. He showcased his skills in the Iran-Germany friendly game for Bam victims. He is generally regarded as the best player in Iran, along with team mate, Mehdi Mahdavikia. Karimi, in 2004 was given the prestigious Asian Player of the Year, like his fellow iranians, Mehdi Mahdavikia in 2003, Ali Daei in 1999, and Khodadad Azizi in 1996.
Ali Karimi performed well at the 2004 Asian Cup, where he tied for most goals scored with five to his name. Iran placed third in the overall tournament, behind Japan and China.
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Bayern Munich
On May 3, Bundesliga champions Bayern Munich's website announced that they signed a one year contract with Ali Karimi who becomes the third Iranian after Ali Daei and Vahid Hashemian to try his luck with Bayern. [1] [2]
Initially, many fans were sceptical. They thought that Karimi was too soft and fragile to survive in the physical Bundesliga, and was bought rather as a marketing gag. However, Karimi quickly proved his critics wrong. On August 14, for the first time, Felix Magath put him on the starting line-up of 5-2 victory against Bayer Leverkusen in the 2nd day of Bundesliga, and he assisted on the second goal and scored himself the third goal and awarded from Kicker as one of the best players of the week.
In the following period, Karimi established himself as a regular in the Munich squad, not a small feat with a stacked midfield featuring Michael Ballack, Sebastian Deisler, Martin Demichelis, Bastian Schweinsteiger, Owen Hargreaves, Mehmet Scholl or Ze Roberto. With his finesse, his playmaking skills and his versatility, he is seen as a great asset, and it seems likely that Munich will offer Karimi an extension of his one-year contract.
Karimi also scored on his first Champions League appearance against Rapid Vienna.

Air pollution

This power plant in New Mexico releases sulfur dioxide and particulate matter into the air.


Settled particulate matter is swept up in a parking garage in Atlanta.
Air pollution is a broad term applied to all physical (particulate matter), chemical, and biological agents that modify the natural characteristics of the atmosphere.
Some definitions also consider physical perturbations such as noise pollution, heat, radiation or light pollution as air pollution. Definitions commonly include the term harmful as a requisite to consider a change to the atmosphere as pollution.
Air Pollutants are classified as either Primary or Secondary. A primary air pollutant is one that is emitted directly to the air from a given source. Carbon monoxide is an example of a primary air pollutant because it is produced as a byproduct of combustion.
A secondary air pollutant is formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions involving primary air pollutants. The formation of ozone in photochemical smog is an example of a secondary air pollutant.
The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic and fragile system. Concern is growing about the effects of air pollutant emissions in a global context, and the inter-linkage of these emissions with global warming, climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion.

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Deaths
It is estimated that three million people may die of air pollution each year worldwide. 2.8 million of the 3 million mortalities may be due to indoor air pollution. 90% of the 3 million estimated deaths are in developing nations. 70,000 die each year in the U.S. (Some estimates are as low as 50,000 or as high as 100,000). Deaths from air pollution are compared to deaths from second hand smoke and chemical weapons. In the U.S, more people die from air pollution than from car accidents. They die specifically from agitated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and other respiratory allergies. The EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel fuel technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the US.
The worst short-term civilian event from pollution in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster. Leaked industrial vapors killed more than 2,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000 others, some 6,000 of whom would later die from their injuries. The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the United States of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4th Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following months. An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths.
Intentional air pollution in combat is called chemical warfare. Poison gas as a chemical weapon was principally used during World War I, and resulted in an estimated 91,198 deaths and 1,205,655 injuries. Various treaties have sought to ban its further use. Non-lethal chemical weapons, such as tear gas and pepper spray, are widely used.
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Pollution Sources
Anthropogenic Sources related to burning different kinds of fuel - human activity
· Combustion-fired power plants.
· Vehicles with internal combustion engines.
· Devices powered by Two-stroke cycle engines.
· Stoves and incinerators, especially coal ones.
· Wood fires, which usually burn inefficiently.
· Farmers burning their crop waste.
Other Anthropogenic Sources
· Aerosol sprays and refrigeration, which once depended on Freon and other chlorofluorocarbons.
· Arsenic and chlorine found in drinking water and inhaled in bathroom showers.
· Dust and chemicals from farming, especially of erodible land, see Dust Bowl.
· Fumes from paint, varnish, and other solvents.
· Industrial activity in general.
· Military actions, including the use and testing of nuclear bombs, poison gases, and germ warfare.
· Oil refining.
· Rocketry, which produces many tons of exotic emissions quickly and which deposits some of them directly into the tenuous upper atmosphere.
· Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.
Natural Sources
· Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation.
· Methane, emitted by the digestion of animals, usually cattle.
· Pine trees, which emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and oxygen.
· Radon gas from earth minerals.
· Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.
· Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.
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Contaminants
Contaminants of air can be divided in particulates and gases.
Particulates are small, solid particles, classified by their sizes. Atmospheric particles are usually measured as TSP, PM10 or PM2.5. TSP stands for Total Suspended Particulates. The PM10 fraction consists of particles with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 micrometres; these are more dangerous to humans than TSP, because they can be breathed deep into the respiratory tract and reach the lungs. PM2.5 particles are even more dangerous because they can pass through the upper airway filtering and into the alveoli, where they can cross the lung/blood stream barrier and transport into the blood. Increasing attention is now focusing on the health impacts of even smaller particles- the so-called 'nanoparticles'. Smaller particles tend to be more toxic than larger particles and can stay airborne as an 'aerosol' for longer than larger particles, which settle out more quickly.
Important pollutant gases include:
· Carbon monoxide, which is primarily emitted from combustion process, particularly from petrol vehicle exhausts due to incomplete combustion; the highest concentrations are generally found at roadside locations. Inhalation of high levels of carbon monoxide can cause headaches, fatigue and respiratory problems. According to the EPA (as presented in the 2002 World Almanac), 97,441 thousand short tons of carbon monoxide were released in the United States during the year 1999, 75,151 of those caused by transportation related exhaust.
· Chlorofluorocarbons, which destroy the stratospheric ozone layer.
· Hydrocarbons.
· Lead and heavy Metals
· Nitrogen oxides, or NOx. Emissions are primarily in the form of NO, which is oxidised by ozone (O3) from nitric oxide to NO2. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is the primary concern for effects on health, and is the species for which WHO health-based standards are expressed. The various oxides of nitrogen can also react with hydrocarbons in the atmosphere to contribute to photochemical smog. NOx can also affect ecologically sensitive sites through deposition, causing acidification and eutrophication. In The U.S., 25,393 short tons of Nitrogen Oxide were released during 1999 [1].
· Sulfur oxides, which causes acid rain is caused from the burning of fuel containing sulfur, mostly at power plants, and during metal smelting and other industrial processes. In the U.S., 12.46 tons of sulfur dioxide were released in 1999 [2], however there has been a 33 percent decrease in emissions between 1983 and 2002, due largely to state restrictions.
· Tropospheric ozone, which is ozone in the lower part of the atmosphere. Ozone (O3) is a secondary pollutant, formed through photochemical reactions involving NOx and hydrocarbons; it is an irritant gas. In the stratosphere it helps to reduce the amount of ultraviolet radiation from the sun that reaches earth.
· Volatile organic compounds: gasoline, solvents, cleaning solutions.
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Control Devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted to the atmosphere.
· Scrubber
· Electrostatic precipitator
· Fabric filter
· Cyclone (industry)
· Condenser
· Selective catalytic reduction
· Catalytic converter
· Flue gas desulfurization
· Exhaust gas recirculation
· Gas flare
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Indoor air pollution
The lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people are most exposed to them. Background pollution comes from such mundane sources as shower water mist containing arsenic or manganese, both of which are damaging to inhale. The arsenic can be trapped with a shower nozzle filter. Radon gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the earth and trapped inside houses. Researchers have found that radon gas is responsible for over 1,800 deaths annually in the United Kingdom. These natural radon emissions can be blocked by a layer of aluminum foil under the carpet (according to the U.S. Department of Air Quality Management). Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Asbestos insulation was commonly used in many application and can be carcinogenic in the lungs. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. Clothing emits perchloroethylene for days after dry cleaning.
Deaths are often caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation, and many homes have been destroyed by accidental pesticide explosions. Second-hand tobacco smoke is now recognized as an indoor air pollutant which accounts for an estimated 3,000 lung cancer deaths annually in the US. Carbon monoxide poisoning is a quick and silent killer, often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning charcoal indoors. 56,000 Americans died from CO in the period 1979-1988. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights. Smoke inhalation is a common cause of death in victims of house fires. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep deadly sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors.
Biological sources of air pollution can also be found indoors, and include gases, particulates, allergens, and microbes. Pets produce dander, bed mites deposit shells and microscopic droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold can form in walls and generate spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires disease, toilets can emit feces-tainted mists, and houseplants and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold spores.
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Child labor







Child labour or labourity is the term for the employment of children. In some countries, it is considered inappropriate or exploitative if a child below a certain age works, except for some household chores and of course school work. An employer is often not allowed to hire a child below a certain age. This minimum age depends on the country.
Other forms of work include helping in the parents' business or having one's own small "business", like cleaning car windows, shining shoes, selling small items such as cigarettes, etc. Some children work as a guide for tourists, sometimes combined with working for owners of shops and restaurants, bringing tourists to these businesses. Also there is military use of children, child prostitution and illegal drug trade, illegal trade involving copyright violations (CDs, CD-ROMs, etc.) and there are child actors and child singers.


Child laborer, New Jersey, 1910
The voluntarism of such work may vary greatly, but even if a child says he or she wants to work (e.g. because the earnings are attractive or if the child hates school) it may still be an undesirable situation for the child in the long run. Some youth rights groups, however, feel that prohibiting work below a certain age violates human rights as well.
The use of children as laborers is now considered by wealthy countries as a human rights violation, and outlawed, while poorer countries may allow it, as families often rely on the labors of their children for survival and sometimes it is the only source of income. This type of work is often hidden away because it is not in employment but in subsistence agriculture, in the household or in the urban informal sector. There is no evidence that this work would be less physically or mentally exhausting than employment, particularly because it is unpaid. A related problem is that children are often more preoccupied with the long-term survival and well-being of their families than with their own direct, short term interests. Child labor prohibition has to address the dual challenge of providing children with both short-term income and long-term prospects for a sustainable future.
International concern has recently been raised in connection to an implied morality complicity of the buying public with child exploitation, through the purchase of products assembled or otherwise manufactured with child labor. However, some express concerns that boycotting products manufactured through child labor may force these children to turn to more dangerous professions due to necessity, such as prostitution or agriculture. For example, a UNICEF study found that that 5,000 to 7,000 Nepalese children turned to prostitution after the U.S. banned that country's carpet exports in the 1990s. Also, after the Child Labor Deterrence Act was introduced in the US an estimated 50,000 children were dismissed from their garment industry jobs in Bangladesh, leaving many to resort to jobs such as "stone-crushing, street hustling, and prostitution," --"all of them more hazardous and exploitative than garment production" according to a UNICEF study. [1]
Individuals, corporations, nations, and other entities can often be active in a deliberate, systematic, use of children for their labor, while others will ignore such abuse.


Child laborer, Newberry, South Carolina. 1908.
In the west, during the Industrial Revolution, use of child labour was commonplace, often in factories. In England and Scotland in 1788, about two-thirds of person working in the new water-powered textile factories were children ([2]). Child factory workers who were best able to cope with factory work become adult factory workers, and the composition of the factory labor force shifted toward adults before significant legislative intervention. Subsequently a series of Factory Acts were passed to gradually restrict the hours that children were allowed to work, and to improve safety. The United States also has extensive child labor laws. In the 1990s every country in the world, except for Somalia and the United States, became a signatory to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, or CRC. The CRC provides the strongest, most consistent international legal language prohibiting illegal child labor.

Tehran


Map of Iran and surrounding lands, showing location of Tehran


Tehran is Iran's commercial, economic, and political capital.
Tehran (also transcribed Teheran) (تهران in Persian), population 9,000,000 (metropolitan: 14,000,000), and a land area of 254 square miles, the capital of Iran (Persia) and the center of Tehran Province. Tehran is located at 35°40′N 51°25′E. [1]
More than half of the country's industry is based there. Industries include the manufacturing of cars, electronics and electrical equipment, weaponry, textiles, sugar, cement, and chemical products. It is also a leading center for the sale of carpets and furniture. There is an oil refinery nearby.
Tehran is a sprawling city at the foot of the Alborz mountain range with an immense network of highways unparalleled in western Asia. It is also the hub of the country's railway network. The city has numerous large museums, art centers, palace complexes and cultural centers. Besides Persians there are Azeri, Armenian, Kurdish and Jewish communities in Tehran. 98.3 percent of Tehran's residents speak Persian [2]. The city is dotted with mosques. There are some churches and synagogues.
The word Tehran in Persian means "warm mountain slope" (دامنه گرم).

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History
Excavations place the existence of settlements in Tehran as far back as 6000 BC. Tehran was well known as a village in the 9th century, but was less well-known than the city of Rages which was flourishing nearby in the pre-Mongol era. In the 13th century, following the destruction of Rages by Mongols, many of its inhabitants fled to Tehran. In some sources of the Mongol era the city is mentioned as "Rages's Tehran" (طهرانِ ری). The city is later mentioned in Hamdollah Mostowfi's Nezhat ol-Gholoob (written in 1340) as a famous village.


Toopkhaneh Square, Tehran, the early to mid-1900s.
No one knows for sure how the city got its name, but one accepted explanation is that Tehran means "a warm place", as opposed to "a cool place", called Shemiran - a cooler district in northern Tehran. Don Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo, a Castilian ambassador, was probably the first European to visit Tehran, stopping in July 1404, while on a journey to Samarkand (now in Uzbekistan) and the Mongol capital at the time. At this time, the city of Tehran was unwalled.
Tehran became a residence of the Safavid rulers in the 17th century. Tahmasp I built a bazaar and a wall around the city, but it somewhat fell out of favour after Abbas I turned sick when he was passing the city to go to a war with the Uzbeks.
In the early 18th century, Karim Khan Zand ordered a palace, a harem, and a government office to be built in Tehran, possibly to declare the city his capital, but later moved his government to Shiraz. Tehran finally became the capital of Persia in 1795, when the Qajar king Agha Mohammad Khan was crowned in the city. It remains the capital to this day.
During World War II, British and Soviet troops entered the city. Tehran was the site of the Teheran Conference in 1943, attended by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin.
On September 8, 1978, demonstrations against the Shah led to riots. The army reportedly opened fire on the demonstrating mob. Martial law was installed in the wake of the ensuing revolution, from 1978-80.
During the 1980-88 Iran-Iraq War, Tehran was the scene of repeated Scud missile attacks and air strikes against random residential and industrial targets within the city, resulting in thousands of civilian casualties.
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About Tehran
The Azadi Tower is the first thing visitors come across when coming from the Mehr-abad International Airport. The tower has become an icon of sorts for Tehran and Iran.
Tehran suffers from extremely serious traffic congestion and pollution problems. Respiratory ailments such as asthma are now very common. Tehran has become so congested in the past 10 years, that the government has considered moving the nation's capital to another city to alleviate these problems and help de-centralize the economy and population. This is especially true in light of predictions of an imminent major earthquake in Tehran, situated on top of three major faultlines. But because Iran's economy and politics is so centralized, millions have little choice but to live and work in Tehran despite these problems.


Borj-e Sefid (The White Tower) in Pasdaran Ave. district.
Milad Tower, Gisha district.
Keshavarz Blvd (formerly Elizabeth Blvd), Laleh Park district.
Argentina district.
The Peacock Throne of the Persian Shahs can be found in Tehran's Golestan Palace. Some of the important museums are National Museum of Iran, Sa'dabad Palaces Complex, Glassware and Ceramics Museum of Iran, The Carpet Museum of Iran, Tehran's Underglass painting Museum, and Niavaran Palace Complex. The Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art is also appealing to many because it features the works of great artists such as Van Gogh, Pablo Picasso and Andy Warhol.
The huge Tehran International Fair organises many expositions. Its book expositions are especially popular. Tehran is also the seat of Iran's Parliament (the Majles). And Tehran is also home to the world's fourth tallest free standing structure, the Milad Tower.
The Tehran Stock Exchange which is a full member of the FIBV and a founding member of the Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges, was one of the world's best performing stock exchanges in recent years.[3]. But since the election win of hardliner Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, it has seen a sharp fall and is now seen as one of the least profitable exchanges in the world.
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Neighborhoods and Districts of Tehran
The city of Tehran is divided into 22 municipal districts, each with its own administrative centers. Within these 22 districts, Tehran contains the following major neighborhoods :
Abbas Abad, Afsariyeh, Amir Abad, Bagh Feiz, Baharestan, Darakeh, Darband, Dardasht, Dar Abad, Dehkadeh Olampik, Ekhtiyariyeh, Elahiyeh, Evin, Gholhak, Gisha, Gomrok, Hasan Abad, Jamaran, Jannat Abad, Javadiyeh, Jomhuri, Jordanne, Narmak, Navvab, Nazi Abad, Niavaran, Park Shahr, Pasdaran, Punak, Ray, Sa'adat Abad, Sadeghiyeh, Shahrara, Shahreziba, Shahrak-e Gharb, Shemiran, Tehranpars, Vanak, Yaft Abad, Yusef Abad, etc.
For full list, see List of the localities around Tehran.
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The older neighborhoods of Tehran
Tehran's old city fabric changed dramatically during the first Pahlavi era. Some of the older remaining districts of Tehran are: Udlajan, Sangelaj, Bazaar, Chaleh Meydan, Dowlat. Chaleh Meydan is the oldest neighborhood of the aforementioned.
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Transportation


Tehran has five Metro lines.
In 2001 a metro system that had been in planning since the 1970s opened the first two of seven envisaged lines -- even though the city is prone to earthquakes. Work has been slow and coverage remains very limited. Development of the Tehran metro system had been interrupted by the Islamic Revolution and the Iran-Iraq War. Problems arising from the late completion of the metro led to buses taking on the role of the metro lines, serving mainly long distance routes. Taxis filled the void for localised routes, not carrying passengers to their final destinations but operating along main routes and arteries. This has all led to extreme congestion and air pollution within the city.
Tehran is served by Mehrabad International Airport, the old airport which doubles as a military base located in the western part of the city, and Imam Khomeini International Airport, 50 kilometers south, which handles flights from the Persian Gulf but which will eventually handle all international flights. The new airport is overdue and over budget, and Britain and Australia have warned their nationals not to use it because of safety concerns.
Tehran also has a central train station with connecting services round the clock to various cities in the country. There are four bus terminals that also provide connections at low fares. These are the South, East, West, and Bei-haghi Park-Drive Terminals.
While the center of the city contains the government ministries and headquarters, the commercial centers are more located toward Taleghani Ave. and Beheshti Ave. further north. Although administratively separate, Rey, Shemiran, and Karaj are often considered part of the larger Tehran metropolitan area.
See also: List of Tehran metro stations
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Colleges and universities


Tehran University, with 32,000 students, is Iran's largest university.
Ever since the establishment of Darolfonoon, Tehran has amassed an abundance of institutions of higher education. Some of these institutions have played crucial roles in the unfolding of Iranian political events. There are 45 major colleges and universities in total today in Tehran, listed below:

· K.N.Toosi University of Technology
· Allameh Tabatabaii University
· Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic) (website)
· Alzahra University (website)
· Baghiatollah University
· Imam Hossein University
· Imam Sadegh University
· Institute for Studies in Theoretical Physics and Mathematics (IPM) (website)
· Iran University of Medical Sciences
· Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST)(website)
· Islamic Azad University of Karaj
· Islamic Azad University of Roodehen
· Islamic Azad University of Tehran-Medical Sciences
· Islamic Azad University of Tehran-North
· Islamic Azad University of Tehran-South
· Islamic Azad University of Tehran-Central
· Islamic Azad University of Tehran-Region one
· Shahed University
· Shahid Beheshti University (website)
· Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences (website)
· Sharif University of Technology (webiste)
· Tarbiat Modares University(website)
· Tehran University of Medical Sciences · Tehran University of Tarbiat Moallem
· University of The Arts
· University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences
· University of Tehran (website)
· University of Emam Reza
· Hadith College of Tehran
· Imam Ali University for Army Officers
· Comprehensive University of Technology
· Tehran University of Applied Science and Technology
· Tehran College of Environment
· Bagher Aloloum University
· International University of Iran
· Iran College of Tele-communications
· Medical University for the Islamic Republic of Iran's Army
· NAJA University of Police
· School of Economic Affairs (SEA)
· School of International Relations (SIR)
· Shahed University of Medical Sciences
· Shahid Sattari University of Aeronautical Engineering
· University of Islamic Sects
· The Research Institute of The Petroleum Industry
· Iran Polymer and Petrochemical Institute
Tehran also contains Iran's largest military academy, and several religious schools and seminaries.
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Sports
Tehran was the first city in the Middle East to host the Asian Games. The 7th Asian Summer Games in 1974, was held with the participation of 2363 athletes and officials from 25 countries.
Tehran is also the site of Iran's national football stadium on Azadi Sport Complex with 100000 seating capacity. Many of the top matches of Iran's Premier League are held here. In 2005, FIFA ordered Iran limit spectators allowed into Azadi stadium because of a fatal crush and inadequate safety procedures.


The Swiss (Poma) built gondolas that carry tourists and skiers to Tochal mountain.
Within 10 minutes of driving distance from Tehran lies a ski resort. Tochal is the world's fifth highest ski resort at over 3730m at its highest 7th station. The resort was completed in 1976 shortly before the overthrow of the Shah.
Here, one must first ride the eight km (five mile) long gondola lift which covers a huge vertical. The 7th station has three slopes. The resort's longest slope is the south side U shaped slope which goes from the 7th station to 5th station. The other two slopes are located on the north side of the 7th station. Here, there are two parallel chair ski lifts that go up to 3900m near Tochal's peak (at 4000m), rising higher than the gondola 7th station station. This altitude is higher than any of the European resorts.
From the Tochal peak, one has a spectacular view of the Alborz range, including the 5671 metre (18606 ft) high Mt. Damavand, a dormant volcano.
At the bottom of the lifts in a valley behind the Tochal peak is Tochal hotel, located at 3500m altitude. From there a T lift takes skiers up the 3800 metres of Shahneshin peak, where the third slope of Tochal is.
Tochal 7th station has skiing eight months of the year. But there are also some glaciers and year-round snow fields near Tehran where skiing began in 1938, thanks to the efforts of two German railway engineers. Today, 12 ski resorts operate in Iran, but the most famous are Tochal, Dizin, and Shemshak, all within one to three hours of Tehran.
See also: Sports in Iran
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Football
In football (soccer), Tehran is host to six football clubs in Iran's Premier Football League, namely:

· Esteghlal
· Saba Battery
· Saipa · Rah Ahan
· Pas Tehran
· Pirouzi/Persepolis
These clubs have on numerous occasions won Asian titles, and some of their players are known internationally.
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Outdoor


The towering Alborz mountains rising above modern Elahiyeh district and its green neighborhoods.
· Tochal Ski resort
· Darband hiking trail
· Chitgar Park
· Mellat Park
· Laleh Park
· Jamshidieh Park
· Niavaran Park
· Sa'ei Park
· Shahr-e Bazi amusement park.
· Shatranj Park
· Darabad hiking trail
· Darakeh hiking trail
· Jahan-e Kudak Park
· Azadi Sports complex
· Enghelab Sports Complex and Golf course
· Several caves, springs, and waterfalls outisde Tehran.
· Latyan Lake
· Lavizan Forest Park
· Vardavard Forest Park
· Khajeer National Park
· Kavir National Park
· Tar Lake
· Amir Kabir Lake
· Lar Protected Natural Habitat
· Varjeen Protected Natural Habitat
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Culture
Tehran, as Iran's showcase and historical capital city, has a wealth of cultural attractions, some of which are listed below.


Azadi Sport Complex
Bagh-e Melli (National Garden)
A bowl from the 4th Millennium BCE in the National Museum of Iran.
Iran's National Rug Gallery
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Palaces


Columns on the side of the Green Palace located inside the Sa'd Abad palace Complex.
· Golestan Palace and Takht-e Marmar. (website)
· Niavaran Palace Complex (website)
· Sadabad Palace (website)
· Saltanat Abad Palace
· Firouzeh Palace, (which belongs to Tehran's Zoroastrian community)
· Soleymaniyeh Palace
· Baharestan Palace, (where Iran's first parliament was located at)
· Morvarid Palace, Karaj, designed by The Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation. [4]
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Museums
· Sa'd Abad Gallery of Fine Arts
· Glassware Museum of Tehran
· Iran's National Rug Gallery (website)
· Reza Abbasi Museum
· Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art (website)
· Tehran Theater of the Performing Arts (Te'atr e Shahr)
· Talar Vahdat Theater
· National Museum of Iran, (website)
· Dar-abad Nature & Wildlife Museum
· National Library of Iran
· Malek National Library
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Religious centers
· Soltani Mosque, built by Fath Ali Shah
· Atiq Mosque, built in 1663.
· Mo'ezz o-dowleh mosque, built by Fath Ali Shah
· Haj Seyd Azizollah mosque, built by Fath Ali Shah
· Al-javad mosque, Iran's first modernist design mosque.
· The Old Sepahsalar mosque, another prominent Qajar era mosque.
· The new Sepahsalar mosque (Madreseh e Motahari)
· Filsuf o-dowleh Mosque, Qajar era
· Moshir ol-Saltaneh Mosque, Qajar era
· Mo'ayyer ol-Mamalik Mosque, Qajar era
· Shahr Banu Mausopleum
· Javan-mard Qassab Mausoleum, a pre-Islamic semi-mythical hero
· Dozens of Imam-zadeh shrines, hundreds of years old, including that of Imam Zadeh Saleh.
· Dozens of Saqa Khanehs: traditional places of prayer
· Several Tekyehs: traditional places for mourning Muharram ceremonies for Husayn ibn Ali.
· Ibn Babviyeh cemetery, where many Iranian giants such as Takhti and Ali Akbar Dehkhoda are buried.
· Zahir o-dowleh cemetery, where many Iranian giants of art and culture such as Iraj Mirza, Mohammad Taghi Bahar, Forough Farrokhzad, Abolhasan Saba, Ruhollah Khaleghi, and Darvish-khan are buried.
· Kordan Tomb, Seljuqi era, Karaj.
· Maydanak Tomb, 13th century, Karaj
· The Polish cemetery 1-north of Tehran in British Gholhak garden, where numerous World War II western allied soldiers are buried. 2- polish cemetery (catholic cemetery)Dulab south of Tehran
· orthodox Cemetery.Dulab/The Russian unknown soldier's Tomb(Cenotaph) is located there with red star over it
[edit]
Churches
· Surep Georg Church, 1790
· Thaddeus Bartoqimus Church, 1808
· Tatavus Church, from the Qajar era
· Enjili Church, 1867
· Assyrian Church



Khalvat-e Karimkhani, Golestan Palace.
Tehran's WW2 Cemetery of Allied Forces
Toghrol Tower, 13th century.
National Library of Iran, Niavaran branch.
[edit]
Castles and Forts
· Arzhang Fort, Taleqan, 1149CE
· Iraj Fort, Varamin
· Gol e Khandan Fort, Rudehen, Sassanid era
· Rashkan Fort, Ray, Parthian era
· Tabbarok Fort, Abbasid era
· Sorkheh-Hesar Fort, Seljuqi era.
· Kei-Ghobad Fort, Taleqan, Ismaili era
· Gabri Fort, Parthian era, Ray.
· Several other forts and castle ruins, such as Ghal'eh Dokhtar Tang Goseel, near Karaj. Like all the other forts of this area, these have been ruined by earthquakes. Seljuqi era.
· Harun Prison. Sassanid era. South of Tehran.
· Bagh e Melli foreign ministry compound.
[edit]
Traditional Houses
Dozens of houses of antiquity with splendid traditional architectural design remain standing in Tehran today. Most are from the Qajar era. Some of these are:
· Etehadiyeh House, Qajar era
· Amir Bahador House, Qajar era
· Emam Jomeh House, 1863CE
· Amin ol-Soltan House, Qajar era
· Shaghaghi (Kushak) House, Qajar era
· Emarat e Bagh e Ferdows, Qajar era
· Emarat Farmaniyeh, Qajar era
· Shahid Modarres House, Uladjan district.
· Vothuq House, 1837CE
· Moshir o-Dowleh Pir Nia House
However, there exist plenty of houses of historical heritage also open to the public, such as: House of Nima Yooshij, House of Mohammed Mossadegh, House of Ayatollah Taleghani, House of Ghavam o-Dowleh, House of Imam Khomeini, and House of Mahmoud Hessaby.
[edit]
Archeological sites
An abundance of ancient archeological historicl sites exists in and around Tehran. Some of the more prominent ones are:
· Cheshme Ali Teppe, 5th millennium BCE. Excavated by Jacques de Morgan.
· Shoghali Teppe, 6th millennium BCE.
· Qeytariyeh ancient Cemetery, 2nd millennium BCE.
· Teppe Meel, excavated by Jacques de Morgan, believed to be the temple of the legendary ancient leader Bahram Gur.
· Vavan Teppe, Sassanid era
· Ghareh Teppe, 6th millennium CE, excavated by the British Burton Brown.
· Ozbaki Teppe, Hashtgerd.
[edit]
Others


Tehran has a wealth of restaurants and popular burger joints, both western, and traditional.
· Iran National Library
· Borj-e Milad
· Darolfonoon institute of higher education
· Morvarid Canon, Afsharid dynasty era
· Tughrul Tower, Seljuqi era
· Tehran's Grand Bazaar, 1523CE.
· Several bridges of antiquity. Example: Pol e Rumi, located in Northern Tehran, from the Safavid era, today a property of the Embassy of Turkey.
· Alborz High School
· Firouz Bahram High School
· Stodan Of Zoroastrian. Located in Aminabad area.
[edit]
The Mayor of Tehran
See main article: Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf
See also: List of mayors of Tehran
[edit]
Sister cities


Tehran's annual International Trade Fair.
· Los Angeles, USA (linked before 1979)
· Havana, Cuba [5]
· Beijing, China (planned) [6]
[edit]
2005 plane crash
Main article: Iranian Air Force C-130 crash in Tehran
On December 6th 2005 a military plane crashed into a ten story building killing 128 people and injuring 90. Many others are left homeless.
[edit]

Is smoking a major cause of lung cancer in women?

Many people think that lung cancer affects mostly men. But even though we hear more about breast cancer, lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in women. And nearly all lung cancer deaths in women are due to smoking. Quitting smoking now is one important change you can make to improve your lung and overall health and live longer. Former smokers have a lower risk for lung cancer than do current smokers. In one to nine months after quitting smoking, your lungs will function better. And after 10 years, your risk of lung cancer is nearly the same as someone who never smoked.
Should women who smoke be concerned about heart disease?

Yes. More women die each year from heart disease than from any other illness. Smoking is the major cause of heart disease in women, especially those younger than age 50. Women who use birth control pills have a much higher risk of heart disease if they smoke. But after just one year of quitting smoking, you reduce your risk of heart disease by half.
Why do women and girls smoke?

Women and girls smoke for different reasons. Some women smoke to deal with stress or control weight. Younger women and girls may start smoking as a way of rebelling, being independent, or fitting in with their peers. Tobacco companies use research on how women and girls feel about themselves to influence women and girls to smoke. But there is never a good reason to smoke, and it's best to never start. There are, though, many good reasons to quit smoking. When you quit, your health and quality of life will improve. You also will help safeguard the health of those you live with by not exposing them to second-hand smoke (the smoke released from a lit cigarette or cigar).
Why should I quit smoking?

When you quit:
Your chances of getting sick from smoking will be less.
You will have more energy and breathe easier.
If you are pregnant, your baby will get more oxygen and be healthier.
Your children and other people in your home will be healthier. Second-hand smoke can cause asthma and other health problems.
You will have more money to spend on other things.
What happens to my body when I smoke?

When you smoke, you can become addicted to, or not able to do without, nicotine. Nicotine is as habit-forming as the drugs heroin and cocaine. Over time, you may have problems with your teeth and gums; staining on your teeth, fingers, and fingernails; bad breath; and wrinkling skin. There are also other, more serious health problems, caused by smoking:
Lung cancer and other lung diseases, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis
Other kinds of cancer, such as cancer of the throat, mouth, esophagus (food pipe), pancreas, kidney, bladder, and cervix (opening to the uterus or womb)
Atherosclerosis - clogged and narrowed arteries
Heart disease
Heart attack
Stroke
Early menopause - the stopping of menstrual periods
Osteoporosis - the thinning and weakening of bones
Infertility - problems getting pregnant
Problems during pregnancy like miscarriage, early or premature birth, having an infant born with low birth weight, stillbirth, and even infant death
How can I learn if I am at risk for health problems from smoking?

Learn about your own risk for health problems, or the risk of a smoker you know. Enter your profile into NCI's Smoker's Risk Calculator at http://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/tcrb/smokersrisk.
What are the dangers of second-hand smoke?

Second-hand smoke happens when non-smokers inhale other people's tobacco smoke. It includes:
Sidestream smoke - smoke that comes directly from a burning cigarette, pipe, or cigar.
Mainstream smoke - smoke that is exhaled by the smoker.

When a cigarette is smoked, about half of the smoke is sidestream smoke. Sidestream smoke contains most of the same chemicals found in the mainstream smoke inhaled by the smoker.

People who don't smoke, but are exposed to second-hand smoke, absorb nicotine and other chemicals just as someone who smokes does. Studies have shown that second-hand smoke can cause lung cancer in healthy adults who do not smoke. Children of parents who smoke are more likely to suffer from pneumonia, bronchitis, ear infections, asthma, and SIDS (the sudden death of a baby under age one which cannot be explained). Mothers who smoke and breastfeed may pass harmful chemicals from nicotine to their baby through breast milk.
Is it ever too late to quit?

No, it's never too late to quit. Quit smoking now to start feeling these benefits.

20 minutes after quitting:
Your blood pressure drops back to normal.
The temperature in your hands and feet returns to normal.

8 hours after quitting:
The carbon monoxide (a gas that can be toxic) in your blood drops to normal.

24 hours after quitting:
Your chance of having a heart attack goes down.

2 days after quitting:
You can taste and smell things better.

2 weeks to 3 months after quitting:
You have better blood flow.
Your lungs are working better.

1 to 9 months after quitting:
Coughing, sinus congestion, fatigue, and shortness of breath decrease.
Your lungs start to function better, lowering your risk of lung infections.

1 year after quitting:
You reduce your risk for heart disease by half.

5 to 15 years after quitting:
Your risk of having a stroke is the same as someone who never smoked.

10 years after quitting:
Your risk of lung cancer is nearly the same as someone who never smoked.
Your risk of cancer of the mouth, throat, esophagus, bladder, kidney, and pancreas also decrease.

15 years after quitting:
Your risk of heart disease is now the same as someone who has never smoked.

If you or someone you know has smoked for a long time, it's still important to quit.
What have other women done to quit smoking?

Almost half of women who smoke have tried to quit during the past year. Many women have to try two or three times before they are able to quit for good. It's hard work, but don't give up! Millions of women have been able to quit, and you can too!

Follow these steps to help you to quit for good:

Learn how much you depend on nicotine. Knowing how addicted you are to nicotine can help you decide what kind of help you need. Take the Nicotine Addiction Test. (http://www.smokefree.gov/guide/nicotine_addiction.asp)

Get ready to quit by picking a date to stop smoking. Quitting all at once works better than trying to quit a little at a time.

Write down why you want to quit. Keep this list as a handy reminder.

Tell loved ones, friends, and coworkers your quit date. Ask them for their support. Ask them not to smoke around you or leave cigarettes out around you.

Create a fund. Each time you would normally buy a pack of cigarettes, put that saved money in a special place. If you used to smoke one pack per day, after one month, you've saved about $150. Set a goal and reward yourself once you reach that goal.

Plan for challenges. Think ahead for how you will deal with situations or triggers that will make you want to smoke.

Get medicine and use it correctly. There are many medicines that can help you quit and reduce your urge to smoke. You and your health care provider can decide what medicine will work best for you. Always first talk with your health care provider before trying any medicines, especially when you are pregnant or if you have heart problems.

Be prepared for relapse. Most people start smoking again within the first three months after quitting. Don't give up if this happens to you. Many women try to quit several times before quitting for good. Learn from what helped you and what didn't the last time you tried to quit to increase your chances of success next time. It may help you to keep a craving journal to record when and why you smoke. You can find an example of a journal at www.smokefree.gov/docs/craving.pdf.

Get more help if you need it. Join a quit-smoking program or support group to help you quit. Contact your local hospital, health center, or health department for quit-smoking programs in your area. Your state may also provide toll-free quit line phone numbers. Find the number in your state at www.smokefree.gov/usmap.html#.
Can medicines really help me quit?

There are many medicines that can help you quit smoking. So you don't have to do it alone. At first, you may feel depressed, have trouble sleeping, or just not feel like yourself. This means that your body is going through withdrawal, or getting used to not having nicotine. These symptoms only last a few weeks and medicines can help give you some relief. Most help you quit by giving you small, steady doses of nicotine. Using them can double your chances of quitting for good. Talk with your health care provider about which of these medicines is right for you.

Nictotine replacement therapy includes nictotine patches, gum, nasal spray, and inhalers. They help lessen your urge to smoke by taking the place of nictotine from cigarettes.
Nicotine patch - worn on the skin and supplies a steady amount of nicotine to the body through the skin.
Nicotine gum - releases nicotine into the bloodstream through the lining in your mouth.
Nicotine nasal spray - inhaled through your nose and passes into your bloodstream.
Nicotine inhaler - inhaled through the mouth and is absorbed in the mouth and throat, but not in the lungs.

In general, when you quit smoking, use the nictotine as a "substitute" for one to two months, then gradually cut down the nictotine until you stop that, too. You can buy patches and gum on your own at a drug store. You need a prescription for the inhaler and nasal spray.

Bupropion SR (Zyban â) is a medicine that has no nicotine but may help you quit. It is an anti-depressant that helps relieve withdrawal symptoms and the urge to smoke. Your health care provider can prescribe this medicine.

Not everyone can use these medicines. If you are pregnant or have heart problems, be sure to talk with your health care provider before using any of them.
I've tried to quit many times. What if I can't quit smoking?

Don't be discouraged if you start smoking again. Most relapses occur within the first three months after quitting. Remember, most women try two or three times before they quit for good. Certain things or situations can increase your chances of smoking again, such as drinking alcohol, being around other people who smoke, gaining weight, and stress. Talk with your health care provider for ways to help avoid or deal with these situations.

Everyone can quit smoking. Think back to why quitting was important to you. Look for a special reason to motivate you to try again.
Pregnant women/new moms - quit now to protect your baby's health and your own.
Heart attack patients - quit now to lower your risk of a second heart attack.
Lung cancer patients - quit now to reduce your risk of a second cancer.
Women post-menopause - quit now to reduce your risk of osteoporosis.
Mothers of children and teens - quit now to protect them from illnesses caused by second-hand smoke.
Won't quitting smoking make me gain weight?

Many women fear weight gain when they quit smoking. You may gain a little weight, but usually less than 10 pounds. You can help prevent weight gain by eating a healthful diet and staying active. Don't let weight gain distract you from your main goal-quitting smoking. Some people even gain less when they use a quit-smoking medicine.
Is it better to smoke "light" cigarettes?

You may think that "light" cigarettes are less harmful than regular ones. More women than men smoke these brands, mostly due to advertising targeted to women. But they're not better. They put smokers at the same risk for health problems just as regular ones do. Some cigarette packs say that light cigarettes have lower tar and nicotine. Don't let these claims fool you. Cigarette makers use smoking machines to figure out the amount of tar and nicotine in the cigarettes. These machines "smoke" every brand of cigarettes the same way. But people don't smoke cigarettes the same way machines do. People may inhale more deeply, take longer or more frequent puffs, or smoke extra cigarettes to satisfy their nicotine craving. Smokers then inhale more tar, nicotine, and other chemicals than the smoking machine measures.

Cigarette makers also put tiny holes in the filters of light cigarettes to dilute the smoke with air. But many smokers block the holes with their fingers or lips, and it's the same as smoking regular cigarettes.

Cigarette makers can also make the paper wrapped around the tobacco of light cigarettes burn faster. This is so the smoking machines get in fewer puffs before the cigarettes burn down. The result is that the machine measures less tar and nicotine in the smoke of the cigarette. The bottom line is there is no such thing as a safe cigarette. Quitting for good is the only proven way to reduce your risk of smoking-related problems.
Are menthol brands safer than other ones?

No, they are not safer and can be more dangerous. People who smoke menthol brands can inhale more deeply and take longer puffs than smokers of non-menthol brands.
I only smoke cigars. Are they bad for my health?

Yes, cigar smoking increases your risk of dying from many cancers. These include cancer of the lungs, oral cavity (lip, tongue, mouth, and throat), larynx (voice box), and esophagus. Daily cigar smokers are at higher risk for getting heart and lung disease.

Even though cigar smoking is not as common for women, it is on the rise. Most new cigar users are teenagers who smoke on occasion. Two studies showed that cigar use has increased nearly five times in women and is also increasing among adolescent girls.
What is the difference between cigar and cigarette smoking?

One of the major differences between cigar and cigarette smoking is the amount of tobacco inhaled. Most cigarette smokers smoke every day and inhale. Many cigar smokers smoke only once in a while, and most do not inhale. This may be because cigar smoke is more irritating. But both inhaled and non-inhaled nicotine can be addictive. Cigars have more than four times the amount of nicotine as cigarettes. All cigar and cigarette smokers expose the lips, mouth, tongue, throat, and larynx to smoke whether or not they inhale. Just like cigarettes, cigar smoking can harm people around you. Because cigars have more tobacco than cigarettes due to their larger size and are smoked longer, non-smokers are exposed to higher amounts of second-hand smoke.
How can I talk to my children about the dangers of smoking?

It's important to talk with your children about the dangers of smoking. Most adult smokers begin while in their teens or earlier. Smoking is also addictive for children and can cause harm even while they are still young. But we also know how hard it can be to compete with advertising that seems to be everywhere, making smoking look cool and appear to be a normal thing to do. Children and teens try using tobacco for many reasons, like trying to fit in with friends or control weight. The bottom line is that your children need your help to never start or to quit smoking. Here are some tips:

Teach your children about how smoking can affect their health. Give examples of smokers they know with health problems so it seems like a real threat.

Keep an open mind and listen to your children. Make them feel like they can talk to you about important issues like smoking. Chances are, they will be more likely to tell you if they have started smoking, or if they have been pressured by others to smoke.

Use role-playing to help them practice ways to tell their friends they don't want to smoke.

Praise your children so they believe in themselves and feel good about who they are.

Be a good role model. Don't smoke, and quit now if you do.
For more information…

For more information about quitting smoking, visit http://www.womenshealth.gov/QuitSmoking, call the National Women's Health Information Center (NWHIC) at 1-800-994-WOMAN (9662) or contact the following resources:

Office on Smoking and Health, NCCDPHP, CDC, HHS
Phone Number(s): (770) 488-5705
(800) CDC-1311 (Automated Information Request System)
Internet Address: http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/

National Tobacco Quitline, TCRB, NCI, NIH, HHS
Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences
Phone Number(s): (877) 448-7848, (877) 44U-QUIT
TTY: 1-800-332-8615
Internet Address: http://www.smokefree.gov/talk.html

Cancer Information Service, NCI, NIH, HHS
Phone Number(s): (800) 422-6237
TTY: (800) 332-8615
Internet Address: http://cis.nci.nih.gov/

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Information Center, NHLBI, NIH, HHS
Phone Number(s): (301) 592-8573
(800) 575-9355 (Blood Pressure & Cholesterol Information)
TTY: (240) 629-3255
Internet Address: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/infoctr/index.htm

American Cancer Society
Phone Number(s): (404) 329-7520, (800) 227-2345 (24 hours)
Phone services available in English, Spanish, French, German, & Italian
Internet Address: http://www.cancer.org/

American Lung Association
Phone Number(s): (212) 315-8700, (800) 586-4872 (Calls are automatically routed to the nearest chapter)
Internet Address: http://www.lungusa.org/

American Legacy Foundation
Phone Number(s): 202-454-5555
Internet Address: http://www.americanlegacy.org/

All material contained in the FAQs is free of copyright restrictions, and may be copied, reproduced, or duplicated without permission of the Office on Women's Health in the Department of Health and Human Services; citation of the source is appreciated.

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October 2003



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Morphine
See Morphine (band) for the rock band.


Morphine
7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-
17-methylmorphinan-3,6-diol
CAS number
57-27-2 (anhydrous) ATC code
N02AA01
Chemical formula C17H19NO3
SMILES CN1CCC23C4C1Cc5c2c(c(cc5)O)OC3C(O)C=C4
Molecular weight 285.4
Bioavailability ~30%?
Metabolism renal 90%, biliary 10%
Elimination half-life 2–3 hours
Excretion renal
Pregnancy category Category C (Australia)
Legal status Schedule 8 (Australia),
Class A (UK),
DEA C-II (USA),
Schedule I (Canada)
Routes of administration oral, SC, IM, IV
Morphine (INN), the principal active agent in opium, is a powerful opioid analgesic drug. Like other opiates, morphine acts directly on the central nervous system (CNS) to relieve pain, and at synapses of the arcuate nucleus, in particular. Side effects include impairment of mental performance, euphoria, drowsiness, lethargy, and blurred vision. It also decreases hunger, inhibits the cough reflex, and produces constipation. Morphine is usually highly addictive, and tolerance and physical and psychological dependence develop quickly. Patients on morphine often report insomnia and nightmares.
The word derives from Morpheus, the god of dreams in Greek mythology.

·
[edit]
Medical use
[edit]
Administration
Morphine may be given parenterally as subcutaneous, intravenous, or epidural injections. The military sometimes issues morphine loaded in an autoinjector. Morphine can also be administered through a slow-release transdermal patch.
Orally, it comes as an elixir, concentrated solution, powder (for compounding) or in tablet form. Morphine is rarely supplied in suppository form. Due to its poor oral bioavailability, oral morphine is only one-sixth to one-third of the potency of parenteral morphine. Morphine is available in extended-release capsules for chronic administration, as well as immediate-release formulations.
[edit]
Uses
Morphine is used legally:
· In the relief of acute, severe pain
o Pain after surgery
o Pain associated with trauma
· In the relief of moderate to severe chronic pain
o Cancer pain
o Tooth extraction
· As an adjunct to general anesthesia
· In epidural anesthesia
· For palliative care (i.e. to alleviate pain without curing the underlying reason for it)
· As an antitussive for severe cough
· As an antidiarrheal in chronic conditions (e.g., for diarrhea associated with AIDS)
[edit]
Contraindications
· Acute pancreatitis (this may be a result of morphine use as well)
· Renal failure (due to accumulation of the metabolite morphine-6-glucuronide)
[edit]
Pharmacology
Morphine is an opioid agonist which main effect is binding to the µ-receptors in the central nervous system. This is thought to be the reason behind the analgesia, euphoria, physical dependence and respiratory depression. Morphine also binds with k-receptors which are thought to mediate spinal analgesia, miosis and sedation.
History
Morphine was first isolated in 1803 by the German pharmacist Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner, who named it "morphium" after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. But it was not until the development of the hypodermic needle (1853) that its use spread. It was used for pain relief and, ironically, as a "cure" for opium or alcohol addiction. Its extensive use during the American Civil War resulted in over 400,000 sufferers from the "soldier's disease" (addiction), though some believe this to be a myth [2].
Heroin (diacetylmorphine) was derived from morphine in 1874. Along with other drugs, its possession without a prescription was criminalised in the US by the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914.

Pact(n):پیمان_عهد_قرارداد

Pallid(adj):رنگ پریده_زرد_کمرنگ

Parvenu(n,Fr):تازه به دوران رسیده

Pilaster(n):ستون چهارگوش

Plagiarism(n):انتحال_سرقت ادبی

Polysyllabic(adj):چند هجایی

Poleax(n,v):تبر_با تبر کشتن

Proficient(adj):زبردست_ماهر_حاذق

Be hard put to it=در فشار بودن_مجبور بودن
Set at large=آزاد کردن_ول کردن
Take silk=وزیر پادشاه شدن
SOURCE:HAIM DICTIONARY
-=--==-=-=-=-=-=-=-=--==-=-=-=-=-

Iran (Persian: ايران) is a Middle Eastern country located in Southwest Asia bordering Armenia, Azerbaijan including its Nakhichevan exclave and Turkmenistan to the north, Pakistan and Afghanistan to the east, Turkey and Iraq to the west.
Until 1935 the country was referred to in the West as Persia. In 1959, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi announced that both terms could be used. In 1979, the Iranian revolution established a theocratic Islamic Republic, changing the country's official name to the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ايران). Dispute exists as to the country's current official name.
History
Sometime around 1500 to 1000 BC, the Iranian nomads of Indo-European stock emigrated to the Iranian plateau possibly from Central Asia. In 8th century BC, the first Iranian government was established under the Median dynasty and under the following dynasty, the Achaemenids, Iranians built the first world empire. Their empire emerged in the 6th century BC under Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian Empire, who called himself "King of Iran and beyond". Indeed, the name Persia is derived from Persis, the ancient Greek name for the empire. The Achaemenid dynasty was followed by the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties as Persia's greatest pre-Islamic empires. Alexander the Great first conquered Persia in 331 BC, followed by Islam's Arab forces in the 7th century, and Genghis Khan, and lastly, Tamerlane who conquered a significant portion of Persia in the middle ages.

After 2500 years, the ruins of Persepolis still inspire visitors from far and near.
The 9th century saw the rise of the Saffarids and then other lines of kings or shahs. During the 19th century Persia came under increasing pressure from both Russia and the United Kingdom, leading to a process of modernization that continued into the 20th century. By the 20th century Iranians were longing for a change and thus followed the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905/1911.
In 1953 Iran's elected prime minister Mohammad Mosaddeq, was removed from power in a complex plot orchestrated by British and US intelligence agencies (dubbed "Operation Ajax"). Many scholars suspect that this ouster was motivated by British-US opposition to Mosaddeq's attempt to nationalize Iran's oil.
Following Mosaddeq's fall, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Iran's monarch) grew increasingly dictatorial. With strong support from the USA and the UK, the Shah further modernized Iranian industry but crushed civil liberties. His autocratic rule, including systematic torture and other human rights violations, led to the Iranian revolution and overthrow of his regime in 1979. After more than a year of political struggle between a variety of different groups, an Islamic republic was established under the Ayatollah Khomeini by a revolution.
The new theocratic political system instituted some conservative Islamic reforms and engaged in an anti-Western course. In particular Iran distanced itself from the United States due to the American involvement in the 1953 coup, which supplanted an elected government with the Shah's repressive regime. It also declared its refusal to recognize the existence of Israel as a state. The new government inspired various groups considered by a large part of the Western World to be fundamentalist. As a consequence some countries, currently led by the USA, consider Iran to be a hostile power.
In 1980 Iran was attacked by neighbouring Iraq and the destructive Iran-Iraq War continued until 1988. The struggle between reformists and conservatives over the future of the country continues today through electoral politics and was a central Western focus in the 2005 Elections where Conservative Mahmoud Ahmadinejad triumphed.SOURCE:INTERNET
=-=--=-==-=-=-=-=--=-=-=-=-==--=-==--=-==-=-

1-He was quite definite about it and assured me he ......... come.

(a) will
(b) shall
(c) should
(d) would

2-If they ......... arrive late, they will have to get their own meal.

(a) do
(b) had
(c) would
(d) will

3-I really hope I ......... see you again.

(a) did
(b) shall
(c) should
(d) would
SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.ENGLISH_TEST.NET

Naive(adj):ساده_بی تزویر_ساده لوح_طبیعی

Niggardly(adj,adv):بخیل و خسیس_خسیسانه و با خست

Nonchalance(n):سهل انگاری_اهمال_لا قیدی و بی حالی

Nullify(v):لغو کردن_ملغی کردن

Nuncio(n):سفیر پاپ_ایلچی پاپ

Nutcracker(n):قند شکن

Nuisance(n):آزار_اذیت_آفت_بلا

Nozzle(n):سرلوله_آب پخش کن

Pretend illness=ناخوشی را بهانه کردن
Beat up the quarters of someone=به دیدن کسی رفتن_سر وقت کسی رفتن
Render help=کمک کردن/دادن
SOURCE:HAIM DICTIONARY
=-=-=--==--=-==-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=

Effects of Alcohol on Your Body
Alcohol is a drug. It affects the way you feel and it affects all parts of your body.
· BRAIN: Alcohol is a "downer," It directly affects the brain cells. Unclear thinking, staggering and slurred speech may result. Large amounts of alcohol may cause unconsciousness or death.
· EYES: Alcohol causes blurred vision.
· HEART: Alcohol can increase the workload of the heart. Irregular heartbeat, high blood pressure can result.
· LIVER: Alcohol can poison the liver.  Prolonged use causes extensive damage and failure.
· STOMACH/PANCREAS: Alcohol irritates the digestive system. Vomiting and ulcers may result.
· KIDNEYS: Alcohol can stop the kidneys from maintaining a proper balance of body fluids and minerals.
· VEINS/ARTERIES: Alcohol widens blood vessels causing headaches and loss of body heat.
· BLOOD: Alcohol reduces your body's ability to produce blood cells resulting in anemia and/or infections.
· MUSCLES: Alcohol can cause muscle weakness, including the heart muscle.
SOURCE:INTERNET
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1-My mother was ......... down the hall lost in thoughts.

(a) jumping
(b) pacing
(c) jumping
(d) wandering

2-Homeless people often ......... about the streets.

(a) move
(b) stagger
(c) wander
(d) limp

3-Every day after work Brian and Joan ......... together back home.

(a) move
(b) walk
(c) turn
(d) pace
SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.ENGLISH_TEST.NET

Obdurate(adj):سخت دل

Oblong(adj):مستطیل

Octagonal(adj):هشت گوشه

Offensively(adv):بطور اهانت آمیزی

Optimist(n):نیک بین_خوش بین

Orientation(n):جهت یابی_تعیین موقت

Ornithology(n):پرنده شناسی

Outperform(v):پشت سر گذاشتن_جلو افتادن

Paint the town red(Slang):=الواطی کردن
Give pause to=دچار تأمل کردن
Regale oneself=لذت بردن_خوش بودن
SOURCE:HAIM DICTIONARY
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Fuck is a strong and generally provocative swearword in Modern English and is one of the best-known vulgarisms in the English-speaking world. Although, nowadays, it is used more freely.
It is unclear whether the word has always been considered impolite and, if not, when it was initially considered to be profane. Some evidence indicates that in some English-speaking locales it was considered acceptable as late as the 17th century meaning "to strike" or "to penetrate" [1]. Other evidence indicates that it may have become vulgar as early as the 16th century in England; thus other reputable sources such as the Oxford English Dictionary contend the true etymology is still uncertain, but appears to point to an Anglo-Saxon origin that in later times spread to the British colonies and worldwide.
The two seemingly contradictory hypotheses may reflect cultural and/or regional English dialects. .SOURCE:INTERNET
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1-What ......... be doing this time tomorrow?

(a) were you
(b) did you
(c) have you
(d) will you

2-......... go if you like because I have to do some shopping.

(a) I'm
(b) I'd
(c) I'll
(d) I've

3-I ......... simply wait until she comes back.

(a) was
(b) am
(c) shall
(d) do
SOURCE:HTTP://WWWENGLISH_TEST.NET

Machination(n):دسیسه_دوزوکلک_فتنه

Mellifluous(adj):شیرین _سلیس

Mightily(adv):با توانایی_به نیرو

Mistrial(n):سوء دادرسی_دادرسی بی نتیجه

Mongrel(n):آدم/جانور دورگه_گیاه پیوندی

Mutation(n):جهش_موتاسیون_تغییر

Mutually(adv):ازدوسر_متقابلاً

Mythology(n):اسطوره شناسی_تاریخ اساطیر_اساطیر

Put in practice=عملی/اجرا کردن
Lay to rest=به خاک سپردن_دفن کردن
Set off laughing=به خنده انداختن
SOURCE:HAIM_DICTIONARY
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The term narcotic, derived from the Greek word narkotikos, meaning "benumbing or deadening", originally referred to a variety of substances that induced sleep (such state is narcosis). In the U.S. legal context, narcotic refers to opium, opium derivatives, and their semisynthetic or totally synthetic substitutes. Cocaine and coca leaves, which are classified as "narcotics" in the U.S. Controlled Substances Act (CSA), are chemically not narcotics.
Because the term is often used broadly, inaccurately and/or pejoratively outside medical contexts, most medical professionals prefer the more precise term opioid for all natural, semi-synthetic and synthetic substances that behave pharmacologically like morphine, the primary constituent of natural opium.
Administration
Narcotics can be administered in a variety of ways. Some are taken orally, transdermally (skin patches) or injected. They are also available in suppositories. As recreational drugs, they are often smoked, snorted, or self-administered by the more direct routes of subcutaneous ("skin popping") and intravenous ("mainlining") injection.SOURCE:INTERNET
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1-The soldier was ......... in the arm by a bullet.

(a) pounded
(b) struck
(c) beaten
(d) knocked

2-I've .........my hand against the door two times already.

(a) beaten
(b) slapped
(c) slammed
(d) hit

3-Give me a hand, please, I need you to ......... those two eggs in a bowl.

(a) beat
(b) strike
(c) hit
(d) knock
SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.ENGLISH_TEST.NET

Laburnum(n):قصاص

Lacklustre(adj):بی نور_بی روح و ملال آور

Lair(n):لانه ی جانور وحشی_کنام

Lancet(n):نشتر_نیشتر

Litigation(n):مرافعه_دادخواهی

Loathe(v):نفرت داشتن از

Luxuriate(v):خوش گذزاندن_لذت بردن

Lynch(v):حلق آویز کردن_دار زدن

Give in marriage=شوهر دادن
Be no more=مردن
Turn an honest money=پول حلال درآوردن
SOURCE:HAIM_DICTIONARY
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Mehdi Mahdavikia (مهدی مهدوی‌کیا in Persian) (born July 24, 1977) is a soccer player and part of the Iran national football team

He currently plays for SV Hamburg in Germany, having been signed for that club in 2000. He previously played for the Perspolis club in his native Iran and VfL Bochum in Germany. His current position is right winger and at times plays striker. In 2003, he was awarded Asian Player of the Year by the Asian Football Confederation. He was awarded Hamburg Player of the Year in 2003 and 2004 by the fans, and also attained the envious title of the top assister of goals in the Bundesliga. However, relative to his previous season, he had a poor season in the 2004-2005 season and was benched. In the 2005/2006 season he has gained his old form back and was able to regain his spot as a starter, being influential in many of Hamburg's victories, such as scoring the winning against Bundesliga heavyweights Schalke. He was considered Iran's best player in the 1998 World Cup and was named in the list from which the team of the tournament was chosen

Mehdi Mahdavikia's strongest points are his vision, passing skills, fast paced runs, and set-pieces such as corners, spotkicks and free kicks. Apart from being a total professional on the pitch he is also known as a perfect gentleman off the pitch always finding the time for fans and reporters to answer questions or sign autographs

Mahdavikia was one of the influential players that played in Iran's crucial 1-0 victory over Bahrain to qualify for the upcoming 2006 World Cup held in Germany.
SOURCE:INTERNET
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1-You have no right to treat me this way and ......... me like an animal!

(a) strike
(b) beat
(c) spank
(d) pound

2-Brian came home very angry, he started shouting at the kids and ......... the table.

(a) spanking
(b) beating
(c) pounding
(d) thrashing

3-I hate her habit of......... the kids for no particular reason.

(a) knocking
(b) pounding
(c) striking
(d) spanking
SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.ENGLISH_TEST.NET